Takeoff and landing are the most critical phases of flight.  A study conducted by Boeing revealed that 13% of all aircraft accidents happen during takeoff and 48% happen during landing (Boeing Commercial Airplanes, 2015).  These are significant figures that shed light into the complexity of the operations, especially landing.  Pilots are challenged to ensure landings are safe in all conditions, whether day or night; the FAA clearly delineates that the majority of the landing accidents are due to a failure in the decision making process of the pilots (Federal Aviation Administration, 2008).  This is where technology, such as Autoland, was developed to address the human factors and improve operational safety.
            When Boeing introduced the 787 Dreamliner, it was announced as the most technologically advanced commercial passenger aircraft (Bender, 2013).  It has even been described by pilots as “17 computer servers packaged in a Kevlar frame” (Leff, 2012).  The aircraft is equipped with a modern array of avionics systems and components.  The Honeywell powered flight control systems provide for automatic takeoff and landings (Weisberger, 2012).   The aircraft utilizes data from the Instrument Landing System (ILS) and GPS to ensure safety; pilots routinely use components of the automatic takeoff and landing systems to augment manual operations.  “That being said, we do use "pieces" of the autoflight system during takeoff. The auto-thrust system is normally used to fine tune power after the pilot initiates takeoff, the auto-brake system is set to RTO to react with brakes if the pilot closes the thrust levers to Reject the TakeOff. Some pilots engage the autopilot above a few hundred feet above ground, especially in busy terminal areas, so that the pilots can manage the overall flight while they let the autopilot deal with the details” (Inch, 2014).
            The level of training provided to pilots who transition to the 787 varies of their previous experience.  A pilot with 777 flight experience can be 787 certified in as little as 5 days, while one with non-Boeing experience must undergo 20 days of training (Nader, Al, Haber, & Reiter, 2008).  The training covers all areas of flight, including Autoland.  Maintenance mechanics and engineers are also trained in the use of the Maintenance Performance Toolbox system, which includes all aspects of avionics and systems (Boeing, 2012).  The level of training is a testament of the complexity of the aircraft.  A recommendation to improve the automated takeoff and landing capabilities would be to utilize the already integrated Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS), which will provide a lower cost and higher precision than ILS.  The implementation of this approach is currently pending approval by the FAA, but it is expected to take place in 2018 (Croft, 2015).
            An unmanned system that performs automated takeoff and landing is the Falcon 9 rocket developed by SpaceX.  The goal of the company is to design and deploy a reusable rocket system to reduce the overall cost of cargo movement to space (Space Exploration Technologies Corp, 2015).  The rocket utilizes a complex set of maneuvers for launch and landing; after ascent and stage separation, the rocket performs a maneuver and burn, followed by aerodynamic guidance by grid fins to perform a vertical landing (Space Exploration Technologies Corp, 2015).  An important component of the landing feature are the grid fins.  “A key upgrade to enable precision targeting of the Falcon 9 all the way to touchdown is the addition of four hypersonic grid fins placed in an X-wing configuration around the vehicle, stowed on ascent and deployed on reentry to control the stage’s lift vector. Each fin moves independently for roll, pitch and yaw, and combined with the engine gimbaling, will allow for precision landing – first on the autonomous spaceport drone ship, and eventually on land” (Space Exploration Technologies Corp, 2014).
Touchdown is performed by carbon fiber landing legs that are automatically deployed before touchdown. 
            The autonomous systems that provide for takeoff and landing have been further refined since their introduction.  The company attempted a first landing on a barge that ultimately failed due to a failure in one of the landing legs not fully deploying.  “"Falcon lands on droneship, but the lockout collet doesn't latch on one [of] the four legs, causing it to tip over post-landing," Musk says. "[The] root cause may have been ice buildup due to condensation from heavy fog at liftoff” (Grush, 2016).  This is an automated system that relies on computational power for its successful operation.  The complex nature of this system does not provide for a manual operation, and it is not designed to be part of the system
            Modern aircraft, such as the 787, possess the necessary technology and equipment to perform successful takeoffs and landing.  In the case of these aircraft it is the regulations that prevent full system deployment in the interest of safety.  The FAA performs evaluations of newer technology and ensures there is complete readiness before allowing automated operations.  This is not the case for the Falcon 9 rocket; it is designed to be unmanned and with a high level of autonomy.  Automated landing and takeoff are integral parts of the business approach from SpaceX, and their research investments are paying off.  The limitations of the rocket are, for the most part, not regulatory but technology related.  The future of transportation seems to move into the direction of more autonomy, which will have the effect of reducing costs and increasing safety.


References

Bender, A. (2013, January16). Airlines Ground 787 Dreamliner: Should Passengers Be Worried? Retrieved from Forbes.com: http://www.forbes.com/sites/andrewbender /2013/01/16/airlines-ground-787-dreamliner-should-passengers-be-worried/#74ebeb04387f
Boeing. (2012). Maintenance Performance Toolbox. Retrieved from Boeing.com: http://www.boeing.com/resources/boeingdotcom/commercial/services/assets/brochure/maintenanceperformancetoolbox.pdf
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Nader, Al, Haber, J., & Reiter, D. (2008). 787 Training for pilots and mechanics. Retrieved from Boeing.com: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/articles/qtr_1_08 /AERO_Q108_article2.pdf
Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (2014, December 16). X MARKS THE SPOT: FALCON 9 ATTEMPTS OCEAN PLATFORM LANDING. Retrieved from Spacex.com: http://www.spacex.com/news/2014/12/16/x-marks-spot-falcon-9-attempts-ocean-platform-landing
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